英语写作

第一章单词和标点（Words and Punctuation Marks）

第一节单词（Words）

1）单词的用法 (Use of Words)
    学会用任何一门语言的写作都必须从单词开始，在具备了遣词造句能力的基础上，进行段落和篇章的写作。英语单词的使用和掌握首先要了解单词与单词之间的相互关系，比如：very good; quite helpful; extremely reasonable是副词修饰形容词结构，一般都把副词放在形容词前。但英语中也有把副词放在形容词后的，如：strong enough; lucky enough。有时两个副词一起使用时，应该短的在前，长的在后，如：He spoke slowly and sensibly. 而不是He spoke sensibly and slowly。因此，我们需要基本了解英语单词的各类词性，如：名词、动词（包括及物和不及物动词、情态动词、联系动词等）、形容词、介词、副词、代词、连接词等等。只有掌握了它们的基本用法，我们的语言才有可能更符合英语这门语言的特征。
    重要的是，作为书面语言，要使我们的所思所想表达得更为准确、生动；使语言本身更为流畅、雅致，还要在单词的意义；单词的多义性；用词的准确性；掌握一定的俗语，成语谚语等方面下一番苦功。学英语最忌讳是，中文怎么想，英文就怎么用。一个简单的例子是，有人曾把They have left no stone unturned。理解为：他们把所有的石头都翻遍了。殊不知，leave no stone unturned 是一个英语成语，意思是try every way possible，中文为“千方百计”。我国有位著名学者，曾经把Milky Way理解为“牛奶路”。理解上的错误必然造成语言运用的错误，尽管这其中包含有语言文化和语言知识成分在内的因素，但语言的一些基本特色是一致的。因此，单词在具体语言中的运用显得尤为重要。
    下面就英语单词使用的意义、多义性、准确性等几方面作一些讲解和分析：

2）单词的意义 (Meaning of Words)
从某种意义上说，单词是句子的灵魂。一句句子表达得如何，除了句子结构外，更多要看单词和词汇运用的灵活性、生动性、精妙性、可塑性、文学性等。在这一层面上，就要看作者对单词意义的理解如何，当然也要视不同的语境而定。请看下面句子中nurse 的用法。

	1.	Patients suffering from SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome) are hard to nurse.
		此句中nurse 作“护理”解。由名词转用为动词，体现出用词的灵活性。
	2.	Difficulty is the nurse of greatness.
		此句中 nurse可作“开始、始于”解。本句句子具有一定的哲理，类似于Failure is the mother of success。亦和中文的“千里之行，始于足下”有异曲同工之妙，体现出广延的灵活性。
	3.	The local government has begun to nurse the tertiary industry.
		此句中nurse作“悉心发展、精心培育”解。其宾语是“第三产业”，体现出动宾搭配的精妙性。
	4.	Since the September 11 attacks, New York has been nursing a mysterious terror.
		此句中nurse作“（始终）孕育（着）”解。从全句看，用了现在完成进行时。不仅使句子透出一定的情感，还颇具文学味道。
	5.	Ancient Greece was the nurse of learning.
		此句中nurse作“起源、源头、发源地”解。从词义本身的“培养 —— 孕育 —— 孕育之地 —— 发祥地”一路想象而来，可见其意义运用的可塑性。
	6.	He sat there alone, nursing a cup of coffee.
		此句中nurse 可以作“慢慢品饮（从护理 —— 小心翼翼呵护转义而来）”解。作为前面 “sat there alone” 的伴随状语，用其他词已无法替代它的生动性。

上面的例句说明，单词意义的理解除了要正确外，还要有一定的深度，因为英语单词的
意义有时毕竟和中文有所差距。惟有这样，才能达到运用自如的境地。再看下面的例句：

	1.	Their line of argument against smoking is that passive smoking is harmful to people’s health, and many people suffer from it.（他们反对吸烟的理由是被动吸烟有害健康，而且许多人深受其害。）
	2.	The hospital is run on scientific lines.（这家医院一直采用科学的管理方式。）

上面两句按中国学生的思路可能会写成：Their reason of… 和The hospital is run by means of scientific ways. 仔细比较和推敲，我们必须承认中英文间存在的差距。
下面几组句子中，你倾向于选择哪一句？为什么？

1.	A)	Nowadays children always grow taller than their parents.
	B)	Nowadays children tend to grow taller than their parents.
2.	A)	Could you spend some time coming to the English Corner this Wednesday evening?
	B)	Could you make yourself available to come to the English evening this Wednesday evening?
3.	A)	Schools focus on improving students’ ability to analyze and solve problems.
	B)	Schools place considerable importance on improving students’ ability to analyze and solve problems.
4.	A)	The mayor sees himself as a servant of the people, not as a lord over them.
	B)	The mayor thinks of himself as a servant of people, not as a lord over them.

3）单词的多义性 (Polysemy of Words)
任何一门语言在词汇的运用中都存在一词的多义性。比如中文的“差”，可以有不同的
读音和意思，如：出差、差错、参差不齐等。再比如，中文的“抽”，可以组成不同的动词
词组，如：抽打，抽调，抽空，抽水，抽筋，抽查，抽签，抽壮丁；也可以组成不同的名词
词组，如：抽屉，抽象，抽水站，抽水机等。英语的词汇同样具有多义性，因此需要我们能
多掌握某些单词的多种含义，以达到灵活运用词汇的能力。下面以英语单词spring为例。

	1.	There is something wrong with the spring, so the lock can never be used.
		作“弹簧”解
	2.	The spring of the rubber is good enough for the purpose.
		作“弹性”解
	3.	Every morning children in the village were sent to the spring for fresh water.
		作“泉水”解
	4.	The hunting dog made a sudden spring at the rabbit.
		作“扑向”解
	5.	The custom had its spring in another country.
		作“起源”解
	6.	Hearing the sad news, tears of sorrow sprang to her eyes.
		作“涌出”解
	7.	John sprang from the bed and rushed out, his face being pale with fright.
		作“弹跳”解
	8.	He is sprung from a poor clerk’s family.
		作“出生”解
	9.	A heated discussion had sprung up after his speech.
		作“引起”解
	10.	Many high-rises have sprung up in the past ten years in Shanghai.
		作“建造”解

4）单词的准确性 (Accuracy of Words)
英语单词在不同语境中意思的差异、存在的多义性以及不同的搭配，常常会造成中国学生在理解和用词过程中的准确性。这就要求我们在学习词汇的过程中注意一些单词词汇不同的词义、固定的搭配，不能想怎么用就怎么用。比如，有人把“吃药”翻成 “eat medicine”；把“我会接受你的邀请”翻成 “I will receive your invitation.” 就是没有正确理解和掌握“take” 这个词的用法，造成所谓 “Chinese English” 就是这个缘故。请看下面take一词的不同解释。

	1.	I suggest you take his advice.
		作“接受”解
	2.	It took him several hours to finish writing the report.
		作“化。。。时间”解
	3.	His father usually takes an early bus to his office.
		作“乘坐”解
	4.	They have to get rid of the cupboard because it takes much space in the room.
		作“占居，占用”解
	5.	That poor orphan has been taken by his neighbour ever since.
		作“收养”解
	6.	Early in the spring, the disease took hundreds of lives in the city.
		作“使。。。丧生”解
	7.	Tim took to Mary as soon as they met.
		作“喜欢上”解
	8.	His father has taken to smoking much lately.
		作“开始”解
	9.	At first, they took it for granted that their boss was a bad guy.
		作“理所当然认为”解
	10.	That old woman was taken in by the businessman’s offer of a new product.
		作“受骗”解

除了类似take这样的动词需要准确使用外，我们还要注意其他一些单词词汇存在的种
种差异。最简单的例子就是动物的叫声。在汉语中，我们常用不同的动词形容动物的不同叫声，如，虎哮、狼嚎、马嘶、虫鸣等，但有时也都用一个“叫”字来代替。在英语中，不同的动物叫声就有不同的动词，千万不能用错。请看下面一些动物的叫声分别用的是什么动词。

	1.	apes glibber 猿啼（发出含糊的声音）
	2.	asses bray 驴嘟嘟叫
	3.	bears growl 熊嗥叫
	4.	bees hum 蜜蜂嗡嗡叫
	5.	beetles drone 甲壳虫嗡嗡叫
	6.	birds sing 鸟鸣；twitter 唧唧喳喳声
	7.	bulls bellow 公牛吼叫
	8.	camels grunt 骆驼噜噜叫
	9.	cats mew 猫喵喵；purr满足时的呜呜叫；caterwaul 叫春声
	10.	cattle low 牛哞叫
	11.	cocks crow 公鸡喔喔啼
	12.	cows low 母牛哞叫
	13.	crickets chirp 蟋蟀唧唧叫
	14.	crow caw 乌鸦呱呱叫
	15.	dogs yelp 狗狺狺叫；bark汪汪叫；whine哀诉；growl；嗥叫；howl嚎叫
	16.	doves (pigeon) coo 鸽子咕咕叫
	17.	ducks quack 鸭子嘎嘎叫
	18.	eagles (hawks) scream 鹰尖叫
	19.	elephants trumpet 大象吼叫
	20.	flies buss 苍蝇嗡嗡叫
	21.	foxes yelp 狐狸吠叫；bark吠叫
	22.	frogs croak 青蛙呱呱叫
	23.	geese cackle 鹅咯咯叫；gabble咕噜噜叫；hiss嘶嘶叫
	24.	goats bleat 山羊咩咩叫
	25.	hens cackle 母鸡下蛋后的咯咯声；cluck 母鸡唤小鸡时的咯咯声
	26.	horses neigh 马嘶；snort鼓鼻声；whinny表示高兴时的一种低微和缓的嘶声
	27.	hounds bay 猎狗吠叫
	28.	kittens mew 小猫喵喵叫
	29.	lambs bleat 小羊咩咩叫
	30.	larks sing 云雀高唱；warble 啭鸣
	31.	ions roar 狮子吼叫
	32.	leopard roar 豹咆哮
	33.	magpies chatter 喜鹊啁啾
	34.	mice squeak 老鼠吱吱叫
	35.	monkeys chatter猴子喋喋不休；gibber 含糊的叫声
	36.	nightingales sing夜莺鸣叫；warble 啭鸣
	37.	owls hoot 猫头鹰尖叫；screech 痛苦、愤怒时的尖叫；scream 大声尖叫
	38.	oxen low 公牛哞叫；bellow 吼叫
	39.	parrots talk 鹦鹉学舌
	40.	pea-fowl scream 孔雀尖叫
	41.	pigs grunt 猪呼噜噜叫；squeal 小猪尖叫
	42.	puppies yelp 小狗狺狺叫
	43.	seagulls scream 海鸥尖叫
	44.	sheep bleat 羊咩咩叫
	45.	small birds chirp 小鸟唧唧叫；twitter 吱吱叫、啭鸣；pipe 尖叫
	46.	snakes hiss 蛇丝丝叫
	47.	swans cry 天鹅悲叫
	48.	tigers growl 虎嗥叫；roar咆哮
	49.	turkeys gobble 公鸡咯咯叫
	50.	wolves howl 狼嚎叫

英语单词常常有其特殊性，有时又很难用相对的中文来区分他们之间的含义，这就需要
我们熟练掌握，并且要根据具体句子的上下文来理解和运用。我们试举下面数词和量词、名词、介词这三方面的例子：
（1）数词和量词：
任何一门语言在数词和量词方面都有一些约定俗成的表达方式。比如中文我们有俗语“不管三七二十一”的说法，任何的乘法口诀无法替代。又比如，在使用量词时，我们从不说“一条人”，但可以说他是“一条汉子”，也可以有“一条人命”的说法。这就给学习中文的外国朋友造成许多困难。英语也一样，倘若我们不假思索地运用，就会闹出笑话。以下是英语一些数词和量词的例子：

	部分数词：
	in/by ones and twos 三三两两
	at sixes and sevens 乱七八糟
	(be) one over eight （醉得）七颠八倒（东倒西歪）
	ten to one 十有八九
	nine times out of ten 十有八九
	但请注意下面的意思：
	on all fours 匍匐（趴在地上）
	a nine-day’s wonder 轰动一时的事件（新闻）
	部分量词：
	a piece of music 一首曲子
	a bar of chocolate 一块巧克力
	a brood of chickens 一窝小鸡
	a burst of applause 一阵掌声
	a flight of steps/stairs 几级台阶 / 楼梯
	a flock of sheep 一群羊
	a pack of wolves 一群狼
	a fall of rain/snow 一场雨 / 雪
	a heap of stones/sand 一堆石头 / 沙子
	a regiment of soldiers 一群士兵
	a posse of police 一队警察
	a swam of flies/bees 一群苍蝇 / 蜜蜂

以上用法中，同样是一群动物，羊和狼的flock和pack却说法不一，而且不能互换使用，这丝毫不会令人感到奇怪。
（2）名词
英语的名词有单复数和不可数之分。而有些名词的单复数和不可数形式之间，其意
义有着天壤之别，稍不注意，就会出现差错。请看下面的一些例子。

	air 空气	airs 气派；架子
	attention 注意	attentions 专心；殷勤
	bearing 举止	bearings 姿态；方面
	bronze 青铜	bronzes 铜像
	confidence 信任	confidences 秘密话
	character 性格	characters 文字；字母；人物
	good 好处	goods 货物
	letter 信	letters 文学
	look 看	looks 外貌
	quarter 四分之一	quarters 住所
	sand 沙	sands 沙滩；寿命
	scale 规模	scales 天平；音阶
	spectacle 景象	spectacles 眼镜
	water 水	waters 河流；海洋

（3）介词
英语中的介词一直被人们认为最难掌握的，主要原因是介词的灵活性最强，和中文的差异也比较大。要学会准确运用不同的介词，首先要理解介词不同的含义。比如介词against在不同的句子中就有不同的意思。

	1. I’m against his proposal. 我反对他的建议。
	2. The Oriental Pearl Towel stands against the sky. 东方明珠塔高耸入云。
	3. He stands against the door. 他靠（倚）着门站着。
	4. We hope against hope if we have enough time.只要还有时间，我们仍抱有希望。

再比如 “born”是“bear” 的过去分词，作“出生”解。虽然大部分字典里没有很多介词例句，但在英美国家的文学作品中，我们常常会看到不同的作家使用不同的介词，以表示主人公不同的出生情况和家庭背景。

	1.	He was born in 1980. 他生于1980年。
	2.	He was born at a village in Denmark. 他出生在丹麦的一个村子里。
	3.	He was born of a poor peasant family. 他出生于一个贫苦的农民家庭。
	4.	The child was born from healthy parents. 生这个孩子的父母有着健壮的体魄。
	5.	She was one of those pretty, charming young ladies, born, as if through an error of destiny, into a family of clerks. 世上美丽动人的女子，每每像是命运差错似的，降生在小官吏的家庭，她便是其中之一。
	6.	Mark Twain was born to Samuel Langhorne Clements, in Florida, November 30,1835. 1835年11月30日，马克。吐温生在佛罗里达州一个父亲名叫塞缪尔。朗荷恩。克利门斯的家庭。
	7.	He was born with a good memory. 他天赋有好的记忆。
	8.	She was born under a lucky star. 她生于福星高照的命运之中。

以上所举的例句表明，有些介词具有清晰的意思，而有些则很难区分中英文的含义。这
就需要我们充分理解具体介词的不同用法，然后根据句子上下文的意思运用准确的介词。

5）容易混淆的词 (Confusion of Words)
英语中有许多容易混淆的词，几乎涉及到动词、名词、形容词、副词等。因此，作为中国学生，我们强调平时要多阅读原著，还要养成勤查字典的习惯。下面仅列举一些容易错的常用词，目的在于学会如何掌握和处理一些容易混淆的词。

almost; nearly
	看看你能否正确地把almost和nearly填入下面的句子。
	1.	Yesterday he stayed at home, doing ______ nothing at all.
	2.	______ every student has got to know that English will be of tremendous help for their future work.
	3.	______ all students have got some improvement in their English study.
	4.	In the United States today, ______ half of people live in areas that they refer to as the suburbs.
	5.	______ no one agreed to the arrangement.
	6.	Well, my report is ______ finished.
considerable; considerate
	1.	Young people really need considerable guidance. （作“大量、广泛的”解）
	2.	It is really considerate of you to inform me of it in time. （作“考虑周到的”解）
defective; deficient; ineffective; inefficient
	1.	That boy is defective in intelligence.（作“有缺陷”解）
	2.	At that time they had a deficient supply of water. （作“不足、缺乏”解）
	3.	An ineffective person cannot be elected chairman of the board.（作“无工作能力、工作效率”解）
	4.	The customer complained about the inefficient TV set he bought from the store.（作“开不亮”解）
	5.	She is an inefficient secretary. （作“不称职”解）
economic; economical
	1.	The country is in a bad economic state, so we must reduce profits. （作“经济的”解）
	2.	She is an economical housekeeper and feeds her family cheaply. （作“节约的”解）
emigrate; immigrate; migrate
	看看你能否正确地把emigrate; migrate; immigrate填入下面的句子。
	1.	In their company, only a few officers who ______ from some small European countries cannot speak English.
	2.	These birds usually ______ northwards in spring and southwards in fall.
	3.	Those years, many people ______ from their own countries to the United States.
	4.	During last December, they ______ to their winter haunts.
	5.	They ______ into Canada years ago, and now they have got citizenship.
ensure; assure; insure
	看看你能否正确地把ensure; assure; insure 填入下面的句子。
	1.	I ______ you that this medicine cannot harm you.
	2.	This kind of medicine can ______ you a good sleep tonight.
	3.	The house is ______ for two-thirds of its value.
	4.	He ______ us of his ability to work.
	5.	His ability will ______ success to him.
	6.	The travel agency has ______ the travelers against any accident.
historic; historical
	1.	It is known to all that Beijing is a historic city. （作“历史名城”解）
	2.	That professor gave all his historical papers to the library. （作“有关历史方面的”解
raise; rise; arise;
	看看你能否正确地把 raise; rise; arise 填入下面的句子。
	1.	Oil prices have consequently ______ fabulously since the war in Iraq.
	2.	They ______ the price from 3 dollars to 5 dollars.
	3.	An unknown fear ______ from the infection of SARS.
	4.	The rapid economic development has ______ China in the esteem of the world.
	5.	At that time, an evil omen ______ dimly in my mind.
	6.	The problem ______ as how to solve the environmental pollution.
respectable; respectful
	1.	Our English teacher is quite a respectable old lady. （作“值得尊敬的”解）
	2.	We should be respectful to all our teachers. （作“尊重他人”解）
	3.	Respectable amount of money is spent on education this year. （作“大量的”解）
terrific; terrible
	1.	In 1998, China experienced a terrible flood. （作“极大的”解）
	2.	They really enjoyed themselves, as the play was terrific. （作“极精彩”解）
	3.	They finally found the dead body with a terrible face.（作“恐怖的”解）
	4.	They finally came to the beauty spot with a terrific view.（作“美丽的、秀丽的”解）